In the 16^th century the Protestant uprising in the Low Countries (today’s Belgium and the Netherlands) led to war with Spain’s Hapsburg monarchy, Charles I who was also the Holy Roman Emperor. When his successor, Phillip II sought to outlaw Protestantism, the followers of Martin Luther revolted, and the 80 Years War began.

Merchants and skilled workers fled Antwerp for Amsterdam, giving rise to maritime supremacy, trade riches, and a golden age for the emerging Dutch republic. Calvinist wealth supported artists like Rembrandt, Vermeer and Hals. Intellectuals such as Descartes and Locke were drawn to Amsterdam. Independent publishing houses flourished. The new Dutch Republic promoted liberal and mercantile values which changed the face of civil society increasingly at odds with royal elites.